France: Inequalities and race in times of crisis
Mina Kleiche-Dray[1]
Application of standard confinement rules for differentiated lifestyles
Within the framework of the Health Emergency Plan, the lockdown was intended to allow continued access to basic necessities for the entire population, in order to preserve—as far as possible—their daily lives. However, by focusing solely on monitoring the spread of the virus and how hospitals would be able to care for the sick, the government addressed the spread of Covid-19 with a strictly health-based view of society.
In France, the diversity of lifestyles across the country has not been taken into account in the implementation of the Health Emergency Plan. The lockdown rules have prioritized a teleworking-based approach to daily life, limiting human contact to members of the same household. The ideal scenario used to establish the lockdown rules was one of parents present at home, managing daily life both materially and emotionally, and children with access to distance learning; each with the necessary equipment and space to successfully complete their professional and academic tasks.
A simple glance at the social makeup of the national population reveals that only a minority has access to these comforts and that, consequently, the rules of confinement have disrupted and even endangered the diverse and multiple ways of life of millions of people who, in normal times, try to resist the structural inequalities of society.
While the elderly paid the highest price for Covid-19, 37% of patients hospitalized with Covid-19 were between 15 and 64 years old. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that a significant number of healthcare professionals are among them, many of whom were forced—even for economic reasons—to continue working despite the health risks.[2]In addition to the healthcare workers who provided medical care, there were also cleaning staff, security personnel, and garbage collectors.[3]; the delivery drivers[4]; cashiers; transport workers—such as van drivers—and in general, all employees in logistics tasks[5] They were, in fact, kept operational to allow society to cope with the Covid-19 crisis[6]But the government did not call on the public to celebrate the great selflessness these workers also demonstrated by continuing to perform their duties, often without the necessary protective equipment and without the possibility of enforcing social distancing. Unfortunately, the public also did not deem it appropriate to extend to these workers the applause they offered to healthcare workers every day at 8 p.m. This lack of recognition towards them is a blatant injustice that deserves to be examined, not so much to label it as a lack of civic responsibility, but to understand how, in today's society, our collective empathy for life manifests itself in different ways. This difficulty in perceiving that the contribution of all the professional categories in charge of medical and social care—sometimes risking their lives—was what allowed essential needs to be met for everyone during the lockdown, raises questions about the differentiated consideration given to human health and, consequently, the attribution of a dissimilar value to life depending on the place each person occupies in our society. The health emergency plan and the application of standard confinement rules have created new inequalities that still need to be analyzed.[7].
Covid-19 highlights the diversity of essential social and healthcare activities because millions of workers continued to provide them during the lockdown.
First, let's note that 74% of salaried workers continued to practice their profession, although only 33% were able to do so from home.[8]Among the latter, 70% of those who were teleworking held executive or middle management positions, while 61% of blue-collar workers continued to go to their workplace.[9]In France, 8,8 million people work in professions that require close contact with the public or colleagues. Among them, 41% earn the lowest wages (i.e., less than €1350 net per month, placing them in the bottom quartile; compared to 12% whose income is in the top quartile—at least €2750). But despite being on the front lines, these essential healthcare workers did not receive adequate protection.[10]Thus, during the lockdown[11]Cleaning staff, domestic workers, and food industry employees—most of whom are women—continued to be the most exposed to contact with the public. According to a survey published by the General Union of Engineers, Managers, and Technicians of the General Confederation of Labor (UGITC-CGT) at the end of the lockdown period, 40% of employees reported not having had enough masks or gloves; 63% stated that no measures were taken to immediately distance themselves from sick people or from colleagues in contact with sick or suspected cases; and 93% had no alternative to using public transportation to get to their workplace.[12]It is worth remembering that this exposure to the risk of contamination results from the government's failure to implement an optimal health plan to address the spread of the virus among the population.[13].
After several months of mobilization—aimed at rescuing the public health system from the threats of a corporate management model that multiple government reforms had attempted to impose for decades—medical staff were exhausted. Despite this, they had to continue caring for our health. Likewise, these other healthcare professionals ensured essential care and services.[14]While acknowledging the dedication and great professionalism of the healthcare staff, let us not forget to pay tribute to all the workers who also contributed to ensuring our social and health security, exposing not only themselves but also their families to the spread of SARS-CoV-2.
In hospitals, for example, one has to wonder whether healthcare workers could have provided care, implemented and ensured therapeutic protocols, or even provided support to the families of the sick and deceased without the assistance of logistics, cleaning, and support staff of all kinds—often underemployed by subsidiary companies. Another sector, presented as strategic in the Health Emergency Plan, is food: several weeks were needed to restructure and equip supermarkets and food stores in general (with plexiglass barriers at the checkouts, masks and gloves for staff) to allow for social distancing within the stores.
E-commerce platforms circumvented the law by continuing to maintain in situ to thousands of people. In their eagerness to provide all kinds of merchandise to customers, they exposed their employees both at the preparation sites and during delivery.[15]Several deaths must have occurred.[16] And that unions and groups defending the most vulnerable will repeatedly warn through statements and articles transmitted by the media and social networks[17]However, it was only in his third address on April 13th that[18]After 28 days of lockdown, President Emmanuel Macron finally acknowledged the indispensable role of these workers, referring to them as "the front line of heavy labor." [19]Regarding the latter, although from the beginning of the lockdown the government had encouraged their employers to grant them a bonus, at no time did it intervene in the negotiation of the possible amount or the conditions of its application.[20]Incidentally, as soon as the proposal was announced, it sparked outrage among workers who saw in this incentive, once again, the commodification of their lives. They responded that their lives were priceless and that what they expected during this crisis were health measures to allow them to perform their work safely.
Standard lockdown rules stifle the ways of life of low-income people living in large cities who are particularly vulnerable to Covid-19:
High population density, cramped housing and mobility limitations: inputs for spatial discrimination in times of confinement
There is no doubt that the livelihoods of these workers, classified by national statistical indicators as low-income individuals, have been disrupted and even jeopardized. In addition to the workers themselves, entire families have been exposed to the spread of the virus. The risk of infection was evident in multiple aspects of these populations' professional and personal lives. It should be noted that, as they primarily perform care and service tasks, which are among the lowest paid in France, these workers house their families in the outskirts of large cities, where population density is higher than in the rest of the country.[21]In the Île-de-France region, located in the North of the country, particularly in the Seine-Saint-Denis department[22]The department that recorded the highest number of cases—excluding the elderly—is where the largest number of the most exposed professionals live: 16,2% of hospital staff, 18,7% of cashiers and salespeople, 21,6% of delivery drivers, and 15,4% of nursing assistants. These employees commute more than the rest of the population, as over 50% work in a department within the Île-de-France region different from their place of residence. By comparison, only 24,4% live in the city of Paris. Therefore, we can assume that this exposure has contributed to fostering…clusters family members.” In addition to this, we find that, generally, these people are housed in apartments that are often quite small. Confinement in small spaces can only complicate daily life, not only because people are then highly exposed in terms of their health, but also because their living conditions become very difficult and even unbearable in psychological and material terms. For example, in April, the newspaper Le Monde It published an infographic supported by data from the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (Insee) and a study conducted by the Île-de-France Regional Health Observatory. This publication revealed that the Seine-Saint-Denis department, the poorest and, with its 1,6 million inhabitants, the most populated in Île-de-France (after Paris), had also been the hardest hit by the Covid-19 pandemic. Between the 1ero Between March and April 27, the excess mortality rate there jumped by almost 130% compared to the figures for the same period in 2019, while the rate was below 90% in Paris. The Plaine Commune and Est Ensemble municipal groupings paid the highest price, with increases of 179,5% and 161,6%, respectively. Health Director Jérôme Salomon had already mentioned, as early as April 2, an “exceptional” excess mortality linked to the Covid-19 epidemic. “While there are multiple reasons for this vulnerability, it is clear that the inequalities suffered by Seine-Saint-Denis explain this terrible record,” wrote Stéphane Troussel, president of the Seine-Saint-Denis departmental council, in a letter to the head of state at the end of April. The survey conducted by the Insee It has shown that “populations are affected by confinement measures in different ways depending on the type of dwelling they occupy or the composition of their household. Five million people reside in a dwelling with an insufficient number of rooms… During periods of confinement, certain populations may be more vulnerable: single-parent families with young children in excessively small dwellings.” [23]In Seine-Saint-Denis, 473,900 people are in this situation, representing 30,9% of the department's population. For a quarter of the households in that same department, the average living space per person is 18 square meters.2 against 25m2 In Paris, 74% of people living in overcrowded conditions reside in a conurbation of more than 100,000 inhabitants (40% of whom live in the Paris metropolitan area).[24]Precarious work, low income and overcrowded housing: these were the conditions in which these workers and their families had to reorganize their daily lives.
Difficult access to food
Only couples confined to their homes and working remotely could take turns shopping at the nearest store or ordering food to vary their daily diet. Access to essential goods through local shops, e-commerce, or drive They assumed they had sufficient financial resources. Several families reported an increase in their food budget, and not everyone could cope with it equally easily. For low-income workers, this increase was due to the loss of access to subsidized lunches, typically provided to parents by company cafeterias or to children by school meals. Mobility restrictions also prevented them from going to supermarkets, usually located outside residential areas, beyond the one-kilometer radius allowed for travel. With more products and a greater variety of food items, as well as prices generally much lower than in local shops, hypermarkets also offer promotions that became scarce during the lockdown. These limitations were further exacerbated by the difficulty of accessing digital technologies. While these technologies allow people to stay in touch with family and friends and participate in economic and social life, the cost of internet access and the lack of computer equipment proved to be obstacles to fully enjoying them. The same thing happened with students, as not all of them were able to follow the virtual classes, even though these were being provided by the teachers.
Distance learning and the digital divide
The continuity of learning for children required the presence of parents to help them follow distance learning classes, it also required school knowledge appropriate to the children's level of studies, having a personal computer and not forgetting access to a quality connection[25]Countless teachers were also unable to guarantee pedagogical continuity in accordance with their usual in-person teaching methods. In many cases, they had to manage without support from their ministry to urgently implement online teaching for which they were neither equipped nor trained. After a collective panic, three, and in some cases five, weeks of lockdown had to pass before teachers managed to install—albeit in a very uneven manner—various methods (software, television or radio programs, etc.) to maintain contact with and teach some students.[26]Meanwhile, many children from these low-income families had unfortunately already dropped out, discouraged by the lack of adequate equipment at home. In many families, the quality of learning and teaching suffered significantly as a result. On the eve of the easing of lockdown restrictions, the Scientific Council[27] He drew the following conclusion from the crisis: “The crisis revealed the lack of digital material, the lack of coordination between the different administrations of school affairs and the insufficient training of teachers in the optimal use of digital tools”; and therefore called for “reorganizing digital tools for pedagogical purposes”[28]We don't really know what this means, but certainly, at the end of this school year, how have teachers fairly and equitably assessed their students' effort in attending classes, knowing that they themselves didn't provide the same quality of instruction as in the classroom? Today, many face this dilemma, which has become a source of disagreement among teachers. What consequences will these disagreements have on the results of the high school graduation exams?
In addition to the difficulties that also arose in higher education, for university students the situation sometimes became even more dramatic. In this case, the effects of the digital divide were compounded by the problem that many were stranded far from home, particularly international students, many of whom, due to their humble backgrounds, were unable to cover their basic needs or pay their rent.[29]They lost the minimum income they earned by doing all sorts of work: from helping with homework or babysitting to jobs as salespeople or waiters/waitresses in restaurants and bars, all of which, without exception, were closed. During the lockdown, solidarity once again came to the forefront for all these people, providing care and creating support networks to allow the most vulnerable to continue eating and having shelter, as well as helping to keep children's education afloat. The food banks and fundraising drives that arose thanks to this wave of generosity formed the pillars of solidarity. Unfortunately, this was not enough to meet everyone's needs.[30]Nor was the minimum support program that the government provided for the most vulnerable families and students after 28 days of confinement an optimal solution.
The rules of confinement exacerbate the dynamics of discrimination and violence by those in positions of authority towards immigrant populations.
Under these circumstances, it was to be expected that the limited mobility imposed by the lockdown rules would evolve into even more difficult-to-bear restrictions. In general, living in overcrowded housing in densely populated areas leads to a more inclusive use of public space.[31]This can be interpreted as an improvised way of resisting the suffering caused by the aforementioned structural inequalities. In this sense, it is perfectly understandable why 58% of low-income individuals believe that confinement excessively restricts individual freedoms, compared to only 13% among high-income individuals.[32]It is evident that the control of movements and activities applied in the context of the epidemic increased dynamics of discrimination and violence that have existed for decades in the urban spaces where this population lives.[33] [34]Indeed, Seine-Saint-Denis, besides standing out as the department most exposed to the virus, also stands out because it is where the most fines were issued in Île-de-France. Figures provided by the Ministry of the Interior indicate that the penalty rate in Seine-Saint-Denis was three times higher than the national average, which hovered around 6%.[35] How should these figures be interpreted, knowing that the population of this department is already routinely targeted by disproportionate police controls and violence?[36]?
Immigration as a way of life in light of racism
In addition to the above, this department is also home to a large part of the immigrant population from the former French colonies and Turkey, as well as their descendants.[37]Fifty-five percent of the immigrant population resides in Île-de-France, in the Nord and Est departments bordering the Île-de-France region, in the Rhône region, and in the Isère and Bouches-du-Rhône departments. In the Paris metropolitan area, the immigrant population represents 17,7% of the 12,4% that makes up the total population. These immigrant populations are overrepresented among workers who have had to continue working. In fact, at the national level, 48% of immigrants are blue-collar workers (36% for the non-immigrant population). Immigrant women hold 37% of unskilled jobs (23% for non-immigrant women). This rate reaches 67% among women from sub-Saharan Africa and 60% among North African women. 55% of immigrants live in homes smaller than 75 square meters (compared to 35% for the non-immigrant population). Furthermore, 26% of immigrant families live in overcrowded housing. The immigrant population also bears the greatest burden in terms of commuting time to work. Specifically, commutes from sub-Saharan Africa are 50% longer than those from non-immigrants.
What social sciences say about the use of the racial dimension to analyze the overexposure to the virus of immigrant populations and their descendants in France.
These figures inevitably raise questions about the correlation between overexposure to Covid-19 and the overrepresentation of immigrants among workers who were less confined than others, those living in the most densely populated areas, those living in the most overcrowded conditions, those with the lowest incomes, and those living in areas where the most sanctions were imposed. What, then, has been the weight of the racial dimension in analyses of the impact of Covid-19, the Emergency Plan, and the lockdown rules applied nationwide? It cannot be denied that the racial dimension in police violence, the lack of professional integration, access to housing, and, more generally, social integration, has gained greater visibility in recent years; and this is thanks to the complaints of those affected themselves, thanks to their empowerment and the collective support provided by the immigrant population and their descendants. However, in the context of the Covid-19 epidemic, aside from some comments about the particularly high excess mortality rates in Seine-Saint-Denis, which drew some parallels with Great Britain and the United States, the issue of the overexposure of the immigrant population in France has received little attention from the media and social scientists. It is important to emphasize that the focus was primarily on territorial fragmentation, economic resources, access to lower-skilled jobs—in short, the well-known structural class inequalities—as contributing factors to the spread of the virus and the number of deaths among these workers and their families. These are the conditions under which the coronavirus crisis would have, above all, reinforced the structural inequalities of society. However, this set of inequalities—whether exacerbated or triggered—was not presented as part of an emergency plan whose standard lockdown rules were applied equally to everyone. They were seen as the price to pay to save lives. From the outset, the martial tone of the President's first speech would have led us to deduce that, in order to save lives, others would have to be sacrificed.
Thus, the health-focused approach that underpinned the lockdown rules showed no consideration for the role played by all those involved in care and services to ensure essential needs were met. Furthermore, the way in which standard lockdown rules disrupted and even jeopardized the livelihoods of millions was ignored. When calling for the reorganization and funding of strategic sectors to strengthen their capacity to face future health crises, how does the government intend to take into account the working conditions, environment, and heterogeneous social makeup (working-class, ethnic, gender, rural, urban) of these workers? Shouldn't this prompt a multidimensional collective reflection aimed at holding the government accountable? And wouldn't it be appropriate for the social sciences to lead this reflection, aimed at defining not only medical care and services but also the full range of essential care and services needed to guarantee basic needs, as well as establishing criteria to evaluate their relevance within the framework of government interventions to ensure the well-being of all?
Paris, June 05, 2020
[1] Historian and sociologist, Senior Researcher at the IRD, Ceped (Centre Population et Développement: Institut de recherche pour le développement & Université de Paris, France).
[2] https://theconversation.com/covid-19-les-classes-populaires-paient-elles-le-plus-lourd-tribut-au-coronavirus-en-france-138190
[3]https://reporterre.net/PODCAST-Eboueurs-et-eboueuses-ils-etaient-invisibles-mais-en-premiere-ligne-face-au-virus
[4]https://theconversation.com/confinement-les-livreurs-de-repas-a-domicile-toujours-plus-deshumanises-135039; https://theconversation.com/comment-le-confinement-a-enfonce-les-livreurs-a-velo-dans-la-precarite-138617
[5]https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/03/18/coronavirus-des-salaries-demandent-l-arret-du-travail-chez-amazon-en-france_6033539_3234.html; https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/03/17/la-crise-du-coronavirus-une-aubaine-et-un-defi-pour-amazon_6033448_3234.html
[6] https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/03/17/coronavirus-comment-les-secteurs-cles-de-l-economie-francaise-s-organisent_6033461_3234.html
[7] https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/310320/lahire-un-risque-de-deflagration-pour-les-plus-demunisThe lockdown as seen by Médiapart: https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/mot-cle/confinement;
https://www.latribune.fr/economie/france/covid-19-le-confinement-met-en-lumiere-un-fosse-entre-cols-blancs-et-cols-bleus-843187.html; http://ses.ens-lyon.fr/actualites/rapports-etudes-et-4-pages/covid-19-le-decryptage-de-la-pandemie-par-les-sciences-sociales-avril-2020; https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/04/30/covid-19-refuser-de-prendre-en-compte-les-inegalites-sociales-face-a-la-maladie-est-suicidaire_6038226_3232.html; https://theconversation.com/dossier-les-inegalites-accentuees-par-la-pandemie-138744; https://theconversation.com/logement-comment-la-crise-sanitaire-amplifie-les-inegalites-135762
[8] https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2020/04/21/le-confinement-reflet-des-inegalites-sociales-liees-au-logement-et-au-niveau-de-revenu-de
s-francais_6037292_823448.html
[9] http://www.ugict.cgt.fr/ugict/presse/rapport-enquete-trepid; https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/03/19/coronavirus-la-colere-gagne-les-salaries-contraints-de-travailler-par-leurs-entreprises_6033612_3234.html
[10] https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sante/maladie/coronavirus/coronavirus-les-caissieres-et-caissiers-denoncent-leurs-conditions-de-travail_3882937.html; https://www.bastamag.net/Coronavirus-covid19-supermarches-caissieres-masques-gel-courses-Auchan-Carrefour-Leclerc-SuperU-Monoprix
[11] https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/03/22/coronavirus-a-paris-comme-en-province-les-caissieres-de-france-en-premiere-ligne_6033993_3224.html
[12] https://www.cfdt.fr/portail/outils/autres-outils/les-travailleurs-face-au-covid-19-enquete-de-la-cfdt-srv1_1116547.
[13] https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/030420/gerer-le-covid-19-pourquoi-l-etat-et-l-executif-ont-tout-oublie; http://tnova.fr/system/contents/files/000/001/987/original/Terra-Nova_Cycle-Covid19_Confiance-et-consentement-sont-au-coeur-de-la-maitrise-du-coronavirus_220420-.pdf?1587557178
[14] https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2020/05/23/dominique-meda-les-plus-forts-taux-de-surmortalite-concernent-les-travailleurs-essentiels_6040511_3232.html
[15] The Amazon company was convicted in this case, see: https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/04/16/amazon-ferme-pendant-cinq-jours-ses-sites-logistiques-francais_6036773_3234.html
[16] https://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2020/03/28/aicha-issadounene-52-ans-caissiere-chez-carrefour-morte-du-covid-19_6034780_3234.html
[17] https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2020/03/20/coronavirus-les-syndicats-veulent-proteger-les-salaries-obliges-d-aller-travailler_6033791_823448.html
[18] https://www.lemonde.fr/police-justice/article/2020/03/17/coronavirus-les-forces-de-l-ordre-en-premiere-ligne-pour-faire-respecter-le-confinement_6033327_1653578.html; https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2020/03/16/nous-sommes-en-guerre-retrouvez-le-discours-de-macron-pour-lutter-contre-le-coronavirus_6033314_823448.html
[19] The president had already used the metaphor “premier de cordée“(lead climber, first in the rope), borrowed from the vocabulary of mountaineering, to designate successful entrepreneurs who contribute to the economic development of the country. In this case, it replaced the word “roping team” (cordée), by "drudgery"which means work, hard work and sometimes even forced labor."
[20]https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/05/26/bataille-sur-le-montant-de-la-prime-promise-dans-les-ehpad-du-groupe-korian_6040779_3224.html
[21] https://lejournal.cnrs.fr/nos-blogs/covid-19-la-parole-a-la-science/pourquoi-certains-territoires-sont-ils-plus-touches-que
[22] https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/05/17/coronavirus-une-surmortalite-tres-elevee-en-seine-saint-denis_6039910_3224.html
[23]https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4478728?sommaire=4476925
[24] https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4478728?sommaire=4476925#titre-bloc-1
[25] https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/180520/l-ecole-la-maison-bien-exacerbe-les-inegalites-scolaires; https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/170320/enseignement-distance-des-deconvenues-pour-familles-et-enseignants; https://lejournal.cnrs.fr/nos-blogs/covid-19-la-parole-a-la-science/le-confinement-aggrave-t-il-les-inegalites-scolaires
[26] https://theconversation.com/covid-19-heurs-et-malheurs-de-la-continuite-pedagogique-a-la-francaise-133820; https://theconversation.com/covid-19-voici-comment-les-profs-peuvent-enseigner-a-distance-133838; https://theconversation.com/lecole-sinvite-a-la-tele-136005; https://theconversation.com/enseigner-a-distance-ca-ne-simprovise-pas-135382;
https://theconversation.com/les-enseignants-sont-essentiels-dans-cette-crise-du-coronavirus-la-t-on-oublie-135143; http://aps.sn/actualites/societe/education/article/enseignement-a-distance-l-unesco-preoccupee-par-la-fracture-numerique; https://theconversation.com/debat-pour-faire-face-aux-crises-developpons-des-communautes-apprenantes-136066; https://theconversation.com/vos-partiels-sur-place-ou-a-emporter-136345; https://theconversation.com/temoignage-enseigner-les-sciences-experimentales-a-lheure-de-la-distanciation-sociale-138146; https://theconversation.com/pedagogie-a-distance-les-enseignements-du-e-confinement-137327
[27] The government created the scientific council to address the COVID-19 crisis. This council is composed of scientific experts to guide and support government decisions during the pandemic. https://www.lemonde.fr/sciences/article/2020/03/26/qui-compose-le-conseil-scientifique-covid-19-cree-pour-aider-le-gouvernement-face-a-la-crise_6034505_1650684.html
[28] https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/05/05/le-conseil-scientifique-de-l-education-nationale-veut-evaluer-les-consequences-du-confinement-sur-les-eleves_6038718_3224.html
[29] https://www.humanite.fr/precarite-dans-lenseignement-superieur-les-etudiant-e-s-etranger-e-s-en-premiere-ligne-689824
[30] https://www.lemonde.fr/m-le-mag/article/2020/05/15/clichy-montfermeil-scenes-de-vie-dans-les-cites-confinees_6039701_4500055.html; https://www.mediapart.fr/journal/france/300320/dans-les-quartiers-populaires-la-resilience-malgre-un-surplus-de-difficultes?page_article=2; https://www.liberation.fr/france/2020/05/07/on-s-est-debrouilles-pour-eviter-a-ces-gens-de-tomber-a-terre_1787728; https://theconversation.com/dossier-la-solidarite-en-temps-de-crise-138670
[31] https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/04/25/violences-conjugales-le-confinement-est-devenu-un-instrument-supplementaire-pour-les-agresseurs_6037722_3224.html
[32]https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2020/04/07/au-sein-de-la-population-francaise-le-confinement-fait-consensus_6035807_3244.html
https://www.liberation.fr/france/2020/03/25/familles-en-hlm-si-je-craque-je-fais-craquer-tout-le-monde_1783087; https://fr.news.yahoo.com/covid-19-confinement-aggrav%C3%A9-disparit%C3%A9s-085610836.html; https://www.france24.com/fr/20200423-covid-19-le-confinement-catalyseur-des-in%C3%A9galit%C3%A9s-scolaires; https://www.latribune.fr/technos-medias/telecoms/le-confinement-un-puissant-revelateur-des-inegalites-d-acces-a-internet-843186.html
[33] Amnesty International, France: For true justice. To end the impunity that law enforcement agents effectively enjoy in cases of shootings, deaths in pretrial detention, torture, and other ill-treatment., London, April 6, 2005. Marwan Mohammed and Laurent Mucchielli, “Police in popular neighborhoods: a real problem!”, movements, No. 44, March-April 2006, p. 58.
[34] While in Paris (6,3%) this rate is slightly above the national average, it skyrockets, especially in the most densely populated departments of Île-de-France: 8,7% in Hauts-de-Seine, 13,7% in Val-de-Marne, and 17% in Seine-Saint-Denis. See: http://icmigrations.fr/2020/05/15/defacto-019-03/
[35] Unfortunately, it is not surprising to find that, at the end of the first day of checks, 10% of the fines issued nationwide were concentrated in that department. At the end of April, Christophe Castaner, the Minister of the Interior, stated that "15,5 million checks were carried out across the country since the start of the lockdown and 915,000 fines were issued."
[36] https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2020/06/03/le-defenseur-des-droits-denonce-la-discrimination-systemique_6041628_3224.html
[37] According to INSEE (National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies), in 2018, there were 6,5 million immigrants living in France (out of a total national population of 67,2 million). This represents slightly less than 10% of the population. In France, the definition of "immigrants" is provided by INSEE as follows: "Immigrants and people of immigrant origin are considered, respectively, all persons born in another country and residing in France, and all persons born in France who have at least one immigrant parent." Based on this definition, 40% of the immigrant population lives in urban areas (compared to 20% of the non-immigrant population). The immigrant population is concentrated primarily in Île-de-France, Lyon, Marseille, and Grenoble. 55% of the immigrant population resides in Île-de-France, specifically in the North and East departments bordering the Île-de-France region, the Rhône region, and the Isère and Bouches-de-Rhône departments. In the Paris metropolitan area, the immigrant population represents 17,7% of the total population. 12,4% which corresponds to the total population.
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– Marwan Mohammed and Laurent Mucchielli, “The police in working-class neighborhoods: a real problem!”, movements, No. 44, March-April 2006, p. 58.
http://icmigrations.fr/2020/05/15/defacto-019-03/
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